System specification issued for An-225 heavy transport, which will replace 3M-T for transport of Energia core stage components and the Buran spaceplane. The aircraft will also be the launcher for the MAKS spaceplane.

This change was made at least partially due to weight growth in the add-on modules, which had become too heavy for the standard Proton launch vehicle.

The SHARP (Super High Altitude Research Project) light gas gun was developed by John Hunter at Lawrence Livermore Laboratory in California. In 1985 Hunter was reviewing data for a 'star wars' anti-ballistic missile electromagnetic rail gun. He realised that a light gas gun would be much more efficient in launching projectiles to a good percentage of orbital speed.

The SHARP (Super High Altitude Research Project) light gas gun was developed by John Hunter at Lawrence Livermore Laboratory in California. In 1985 Hunter was reviewing data for a 'star wars' anti-ballistic missile electromagnetic rail gun. He realised that a light gas gun would be much more efficient in launching projectiles to a good percentage of orbital speed.

No gun projectile can exceed the velocity of the propellant gases in the barrel. The light gas gun takes advantage of the fact that a lower molecular weight gas, such as hydrogen, has a higher velocity at a given temperature than the heavier molecules of conventional gun propellants. In order to heat the hydrogen up, a two-stage design was developed. A gas pump tube was set at a right angle to the gun barrel itself. Inside the pump tube was a piston. An explosive mixture of methane gas was ignited, pushing the piston down the tube, compressing and heating the hydrogen gas on the other side of the piston. When the pressure reached 4,000 atmospheres, a partition burst, releasing the gas into the gun tube, pushing the projectile down its length. As in the Oberth design, the barrel itself was depressurised and covered with a plastic lid to reduce drag against the projectile as it travelled down the barrel. Using this approach, Hunter felt that muzzle velocities of up to 7 km/sec could be obtained (compared to Bull's 2 km/sec). At this speed, a simple single-stage rocket stage would be sufficient to place a payload into orbit. The payload itself would amount to 66% of the launch mass.

Hunter's research discovered that a small NASA gas gun had achieved a projectile speed of 11 km/sec in 1966. The first hardware built was a single-stage hydrogen gas gun demonstrating a muzzle velocity of 2.5 km/sec. This verified Hunter's gun computer model and lead to funding to build a 3 m long two-stage gas gun with a velocity of 8 km/sec. This demonstrated the principle of SHARP and resulted in funding for construction of the full-scale gun.

SHARP was built at Lawrence Livermore's Site 300 explosives test site in the hills to the east of the laboratory. The L-shaped gun consisted of the 82 m long, 36 cm calibre pump tube and the 47 m long, 10 cm calibre gun barrel. Recoil forces were absorbed by three rail-mounted sleds-two of 100-tonnes and one of 10-tonnes. SHARP began operation in December 1992 and demonstrated velocities of 3 km/sec with 5 kg projectiles. However the $ 1 billion funding to elevate the tube and begin space launch tests of smaller projectiles at speeds of up to 7 km/sec was not forthcoming. By 1996 the gun was relegated to occasional test of sub-scale Mach 9 scramjet models.

The XMM mission was the second Cornerstone mission of ESA's Long-Term Space Science programme. It was proposed by the Agency's Science Programme Committee in 1984 and was approved by the ESA Council of Ministers held in Rome.

Sakigake ('Pioneer') was a test spacecraft similar to Suisei (Planet-A). Objectives were :verification of fundamental technology related to interplanetary missions, including deep-space communication, attitude control, attitude determination; study and observation of solar wind and plasma waves and interplanetary magnetic field. It carried three instruments to measure plasma wave spectra, solar wind ions, and interplanetary magnetic fields. The spacecraft was spin-stabilized at two different rates (5 and 0.2 rpm). It was equipped with hydrazine thrusters for attitude and velocity control, star and sun sensors for attitude determination, and a mechanically despun off-set parabolic dish for long-range communication. Launched into an initial heliocentric orbit with a period of 318.8 days, at 151.4 x 121.9 million km (0.815 x 1.012 AU), 1.439 degree inclination. Flew by Comet Halley on its sunward side at a distance of about 7 million kilometers on March 11, 1986. It later made an Earth swingby on January 8, 1992 with a closest approach of 88,997 km. This was the first planet-swingby for a Japanese spacecraft. During the approach, Sakigake observed the geotail, with passage occurring at 290 Re on 14 June 1993 before ISTP's multi-spacecraft investigation of that region. The second Earth swingby was on June 14, 1993 at 40 Re, and the third on October 28, 1994 at 86 Re. Almost no hydrazine remained so no further maneuvers were accomplished. Telemetry contact was lost on 15 November 1995 at a distance of 106 million km. Future mission planning had included a 23.6 km/s, 10,000 km flyby of Comet Honda-Mrkos-Pajdusakova on Feb 3, 1996 (approaching the nucleus along the tail) some 0.17 AU from the Sun, and a 14 million km passage of Comet Giacobini-Zinner on Nov 29, 1998. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 296 .

High resolution photo reconnaissance; returned film in two small SpK capsules during the mission and with the main capsule at completion of the mission. References: 1 , 2 , 6 , 179 .

First launch of new Strela-3 store-dump military communications satellite. Six Strelas are put into medium earth orbits with each launch. In the first two launches, four of the satellites are mass-model mockups. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 105 .

Mass model of Strela-3. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 105 .

Mass model of Strela-3. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 105 .

Mass model of Strela-3. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 105 .

Mass model of Strela-3. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 105 .

Military cartographic satellite; returned film capsule. References: 1 , 2 , 6 .

Replaced Molniya 3-19. Operation of the long-range telephone and telegraph radio communications system in the USSR; transmission of USSR Central Television programmes to stations in the Orbita network and within the framework of international cooperation. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 .

Replaced Cosmos 1570. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 .

Stationed at 140 deg E. Provision of telephone and telegraph radiocommunications and television broadcasting. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 67 , 111 , 274 .

Ocean monitoring. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 .

Replaced Cosmos 1408. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 .

Manned five crew. Deployed USA 8 (Aquacade ELINT spacecraft). Orbits of Earth: 48. Landed at: Runway 15 at Kennedy Space Center, Florida. Landing Speed: 342 kph. Touchdown miss distance: 839.00 m. Landing Rollout: 2,240.00 m. Payloads: Department of Defence classified payloads. Additional Details: STS-51-C. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 33 .

New Magnum model geostationary ELINT satellite model replaced earlier Rhyolite/Aquacade. Deployed from STS-51C January 24 1985. Boosted to geostationary orbit. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 172 .

Concept was reusable spacecraft, launched by Zenit launch vehicle, with all possible systems recovered in landing module, together with significant payload delivered to and returned from orbit. Carriage in payload bay of Buran shuttle was also a requirement.

Military navigation satellite. Replaced Cosmos 1448. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 .

DOS-8 serial number 128 was originally designed as the backup to Mir and possibly the core module of Mir-2.

Military cartographic satellite; returned film capsule. References: 1 , 2 , 6 .

Satellite Data Systems 2. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 .

Gathering meteorological information and data on penetrating radiation fluxes in circumterrestrial space. References: 1 , 2 , 6 .

Stationed at 19 deg E. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 .

Stationed at 65 deg W. Brazilsat 1 & 2 provide telecommunications services to Brazil. Canada's Spar Aerospace was awarded a $125 million contract to build, under license, two satellites based on Hughes' HS-376 design (similar to Anik D). Brazilsat 1 & 2 were the first two elements of Brazil's national Sistema Barasilero de Telecommunicacoes por Satelite (SBTS) network. Spacecraft: Based on Hughes HS-376, single antenna on despun platform, spin stabilised, hydrazine thrusters, body mounted solar cells provide 982 W BOL. Payload: 24 C-band transponders with 6 spares, 10 W TWTA, EIRP >34 dBW over most of Brazilian territory
Financial/Operational:
Contract issued in 1990 for 2 units HS-376W. B1-B2 have dedicated transponders for government use. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 .

Geosynchronous ballistic missile early warning satellite. Stationed at 335 deg E. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 67 , 107 , 274 .

High resolution photo reconnaissance; returned film in two small SpK capsules during the mission and with the main capsule at completion of the mission. References: 1 , 2 , 6 , 179 .

Possible radar calibration satellite. Radar calibration mission. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 .

Military cartographic satellite; returned film capsule; maneuverable. References: 1 , 2 , 6 .

From March-October 1985 the Ts core stage was back on the UKSS for cold flow tests. A total of nine cryogenic fuelling cycle were completed with the 4M Energia mock-up, representing the first operational use in the world of super-chilled hydrogen.

Planned TDRS/IUS deployment shuttle mission. Cancelled due to IUS failure.

Replaced Cosmos 1470. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 .

Planned but cancelled manned flight to Salyut 7. Breakdown of Salyut 7 led to cancellation of this flight and its replacement by the Soyuz T-13 repair mission. Savinykh served on the repair mission while Vasyutin and Volkov flew on Soyuz T-14. References: 94 .

Ocean sea height mapping. Spacecraft engaged in practical applications and uses of space technology such as weather or communication (US Cat C). References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 278 .

Military navigation satellite. Replaced Cosmos 1513. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 .

From March-October 1985 the Ts core stage was back on the UKSS test/launch stand for cold flow tests. A total of nine cryogenic fuelling cycle were completed with the 4M Energia mock-up, representing the first operational use in the world of super-chilled hydrogen.

Eight satellites launched by a single carrier rocket. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 .

Stationed at 99 deg E. Transmission of Central Television programmes to a network of receivers for collective use. References: 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 67 , 274 .

Photo/digital surveillance. References: 1 , 2 , 6 .